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Operational [61]. Operation suspended under review [62]. Operation suspended. Operation suspended restart approved [63]. Operational [64]. Operational [65]. Operation suspended restart approved [66]. Operation suspended restart approved [67]. Operation suspended restart approved [68]. Laguna Verde. Magnox Pu -production. Shut down [ citation needed ]. LWR [69]. Planned [69]. Unfinished; restart planned [71]. Choczewo [72] [73].
Akademik Lomonosov. Under construction suspended [76]. Kola II [76] [77]. Kostroma [76] [78]. Kursk II. Leningrad II [81]. June [82]. MPEB 1 [83] [84] [85] [86]. Nizhny Novgorod. Novovoronezh II.
South Urals. Smolensk II [89] [90]. Cancelled [] []. Planned []. South Ukraine. Bradwell B. Calder Hall. Dungeness A. Dungeness B. Hinkley Point A. Hinkley Point B. Hinkley Point C. Hunterston A. Hunterston B. Oldbury B. Sizewell A. Sizewell C. Winfrith []. Wylfa Newydd. Arkansas Nuclear One. Beaver Valley. WH 3-loop DRY. Big Rock Point []. Blue Castle Project []. Browns Ferry. Calvert Cliffs. Carbon Free Power Project [].
Comanche Peak. Connecticut Yankee. Crystal River 3. Diablo Canyon. Donald C. Edwin I. Fort Calhoun. Fort St. Grand Gulf.
Hope Creek. Humboldt Bay. Indian Point. James A. Joseph M. La Crosse. LaSalle County. Maine Yankee. One of these has been in commercial operation since Moir and Teller consider the molten-salt reactor , a less developed technology, as potentially having the greatest inherent safety of the six models. The very-high-temperature reactor designs operate at much higher temperatures than prior generations. This allows for high temperature electrolysis or for sulfur—iodine cycle for the efficient production of hydrogen and the synthesis of carbon-neutral fuels.
The first commercial plants are not expected before , [4] although the World Nuclear Association suggests that some might enter commercial operation before The majority of reactors in operation around the world are second generation reactor systems, as the majority of the first generation systems have been retired. Only a few Generation III reactors were in operation as of Generation V reactors are purely theoretical and are not yet considered feasible in the short term.
The non-active members are Argentina and Brazil. The GIF Forum introduced timelines for each of the six systems. Research and development divide into three phases:. Many reactor types were considered initially; the list was then refined to focus on the most promising technologies. Fast reactors offer the possibility of burning actinides to further reduce waste and can breed more fuel than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance depending on perspective and physical protection.
A thermal reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses slow or thermal neutrons. A neutron moderator is used to slow the neutrons emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel. The very-high-temperature reactor VHTR concept uses a graphite-moderated core with a once-through uranium fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt as a coolant. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a pebble bed reactor design.
The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or hydrogen production via the thermochemical sulfur-iodine cycle process.
In , as part of the next generation nuclear plant competition, the Idaho National Laboratory approved a design similar to Areva 's prismatic block Antares reactor to be deployed as a prototype by The standard Xe four-pack plant generates approximately MWe and will fit on as few as 13 acres.
All of the components for the Xe will be road-transportable, and will be installed, rather than constructed, at the project site to streamline construction. A molten salt reactor [21] is a type of nuclear reactor where the primary coolant , or even the fuel itself is a molten salt mixture. There have been many designs put forward for this type of reactor and a few prototypes built. The principle of a MSR can be used for thermal, epithermal and fast reactors.
Current concept designs include thermal spectrum reactors e. IMSR as well as fast spectrum reactors e. The early thermal spectrum concepts and many current ones rely on nuclear fuel , perhaps uranium tetrafluoride UF 4 or thorium tetrafluoride ThF 4 , dissolved in molten fluoride salt.
The fluid would reach criticality by flowing into a core where graphite would serve as the moderator. Many current concepts rely on fuel that is dispersed in a graphite matrix with the molten salt providing low pressure, high temperature cooling. These Gen IV MSR concepts are often more accurately termed an epithermal reactor than a thermal reactor due to the average speed of the neutrons that would cause the fission events within its fuel being faster than thermal neutrons.
Fast spectrum MSR concept designs e. MCSFR do away with the graphite moderator. They achieve criticality by having a sufficient volume of salt with sufficient fissile material. Being fast spectrum they can consume much more of the fuel and leave only short lived waste. While most MSR designs being pursued are largely derived from the s Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment MSRE , variants of molten salt technology include the conceptual Dual fluid reactor which is being designed with lead as a cooling medium but molten salt fuel, commonly as the metal chloride e.
Plutonium III chloride , to aid in greater "nuclear waste" closed-fuel cycle capabilities. This latter British design was found to be the most competitive for Small modular reactor development by a British-based consultancy firm Energy Process Development in ISBN Proceedings of international forum on illegal nuclear traffic.
Archived from the original PDF on 22 July June Retrieved 1 July Princeton University. Retrieved 18 April March Oak Ridge National Laboratories. Archived from the original PDF on 2 November Retrieved 30 October Nuclear Weapons FAQ. Retrieved 2 October Retrieved 19 December The enrichment of the pin and of one of the hemispheres was Retrieved 26 January Von Hippel; Laura H.
Kahn December S2CID To produce the same amount of reactor-grade fuel requires a considerably larger number approximately 50, to , of centrifuge units than diffusion units. Silex Ltd. Atomic Insights. Archived from the original on 28 January The s facility is the last remaining gaseous diffusion uranium enrichment plant in the world. Duarte and L. Hillman Eds. GE Energy. Archived from the original on 14 June Business Wire.
Retrieved 30 September The New York Times. Retrieved 21 August September Bibcode : NW Retrieved 7 November Archived from the original on 6 April December Uranium enrichment PDF. Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. Retrieved 21 November Standing Committee on Industry and Resources Report. The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia. The start of commercial operation was planned for , [18] but has been pushed back several times. It will have a nameplate capacity of MW.
Japan Steel Works and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries manufactured the unit's ton reactor pressure vessel. At the start of construction, the main contractor was Areva NP now Framatome , after the sell-off mentioned below , a joint venture of Areva and Siemens.
However, in , Siemens sold its one-third share of Areva NP to Areva, which is now the main contractor. According to TVO, the construction phase of the project would create a total of about 30, person-years of employment directly and indirectly; that the highest number of on-site employees has been almost 4,; and that the operation phase would create to permanent jobs.
On 8 December the company submitted its application to Finland's Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority asking permission to start up Unit 3 and to move forward with initial testing of the unit. An unplanned automatic trip occurred on 14 January , delaying connection to the national grid to February The test production phase should complete in December , when regular electricity production should start.
The first license application for the third unit was made in December [28] and the date of the unit's entry into service was estimated to be In July TVO announced that the unit would not go into service before , [14] [29] five years after the original estimate. In a statement, the operator said it was "not pleased with the situation" although solutions to various problems were being found and work was "progressing", and that it was waiting for a new launch date from Areva and Siemens.
According to Kauppalehti , the estimated opening was delayed until — The delay was caused by slower than expected modification works. The delays have been due to various problems with planning, supervision, and workmanship, [14] and have been the subject of an inquiry by STUK , the Finnish nuclear safety regulator. Later, it was found that subcontractors had provided heavy forgings that were not up to project standards and which had to be re-cast. An apparent problem constructing the reactor's unique double-containment structure also caused delays, as the welders had not been given proper instructions.
In , Petteri Tiippana, the director of STUK's nuclear power plant division, told the BBC that it was difficult to deliver nuclear power plant projects on schedule because builders were not used to working to the exacting standards required on nuclear construction sites, since so few new reactors had been built in recent years.
Construction of the turbine succeeded better under the responsibility of Siemens. Installations of the main turbine equipment were completed about one year behind the original schedule. However, as of , the construction of the EPR in France is ten years behind schedule. OL3 is expected to produce an additional 12,, GWh annually. In , professor Stephen Thomas wrote, "Olkiluoto has become an example of all that can go wrong in economic terms with new reactors," and that Areva and the TVO "are in bitter dispute over who will bear the cost overruns and there is a real risk now that the utility will default.
The delays and cost overruns have had knock-on effects in other countries. The construction workforce includes about 3, employees from companies. In it was reported that one Bulgarian contracting firm is owned by the mafia, and that Bulgarian workers have been required to pay weekly protection fees to the mafia , wages have been unpaid, employees have been told not to join a union and that employers also reneged on social security payments.
The decision was approved by the parliament on 1 July In September , with unit 3 still unfinished, the Finnish government rejected TVO's request for time extension of the unit 4 decision-in-principle. Economic Affairs Minister Jan Vapaavuori referred to the long delay of the 3rd reactor and to unsatisfactory assurances by TVO that the 4th unit would ever be built. Nevertheless PM Stubb stated that the rejection didn't spell the end for the OL4 project, and that TVO would have the opportunity to apply for a construction license before the decision-in-principle expires in June In June TVO decided not to apply for a construction permit for the Olkiluoto 4 unit because of delays with the unit 3, however saying they are prepared to file for a new decision-in-principle later.
The Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository is a deep geological repository for the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel, the first such repository in the world. It is currently under construction at the Olkiluoto plant by the company Posiva , owned by the nuclear power plant operators Fortum and TVO. The power plant hosts the northernmost vineyard in the world, a 0.
An incident occurred at unit 2 on 10 December at Because of a valve repair work, excessively hot water flowed to the reactor water clean-up system filters. The hot water dissolved materials from the filters.
When the clean-up system was restarted, the dissolved materials flowed to the reactor core, where they became radioactive.
This caused the radiation levels in the steam line to rise momentary 3—4 times higher than the normal level. The increase of the radiation level activated safety systems, which operated as planned and triggered reactor scram , closed containment isolation valves, and started the containment spray system.
The operators followed procedures and declared a site area emergency at There was no radioactive release to the environment, and the workers were not exposed to radiation.
In April a turbine steam condenser of unit 1 had a small seawater leak, at a rate of two litres per hour. According to the operator, the leak forced to limit the plant output down to MW, but was not serious and was to be repaired in a day.
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